Central European Journal of Sport Sciences and Medicine

ISSN: 2300-9705     eISSN: 2353-2807    OAI    DOI: 10.18276/cej.2022.1-03
CC BY-SA   Open Access   DOAJ  DOAJ

Issue archive / Vol. 37, No. 1/2022
Plants, Algae, Cyanobacteria and Fungi in Diet of Vegan and Vegetarian Sportsmen-a Systematic Review

Authors: Kinga Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt ORCID
Faculty of Tourism and Recreation, University of Physical Education in Kraków, Poland
Keywords: athlete health non-animal diet nutrition sport
Data publikacji całości:2022
Page range:21 (23-43)
Cited-by (Crossref) ?:

Abstract

Vegan and vegetarian diets have become increasingly popular in developed countries. The aim of the research presented here is to review publications referring to the role of plants, algae, bacteria and fungi in the diet of vegan and vegetarian sportsmen published in the period 2000-2021. The review of the literature was based on peer-reviewed original full-text articles and patents using the ISI Web of Science database, as well as the Google Scholar and Google Patents search engines. Factorial combinations of the following keywords were applied: (‘plant’ or ‘alga’ or ‘fungus’ or ‘cyanobacteria’) and (‘athlete’ or ‘sport’) and (‘food’ or ‘nutrition’ or ‘diet’) and (‘vegan’ or ‘vegetarian’). The survey of the literature, carried out according to PRISMA statements, showed that many taxa canbe used in manufacturing products enhancing sport nutrition, athletic performance, mental alertness, physical health, preventing disorders and controlling body weight.Numerous authors found that the ingestion of plant constituents such as caffeine and proteins enhances muscle growth and recovery. Other investigations indicated the occurrence of beneficial effects, as well as imperfections, ofnon-animal diets. The performed investigations documented that acceptance of vegan and vegetarian diets flows from religious and ethical beliefs, as well as the advantages of sustainable eating practices.
Download file

Article file

Bibliography

1.D'Angelo, S., Cusano, P. (2020). Who practices sports can be vegetarian?. J. Hum. Sport Exerc., 15, S552–S561.DOI: 10.14198/jhse.2020.15.Proc3.08
2.Agnoli, C., Baroni, L., Bertini, I., Ciappellano, S., Fabbri, A., Papa, M., Pellegrini, N., Sbarbati, R., Scarino, M.L., Siani, V., Sieri S. (2017). Position paper on vegetarian diets from the working group of the Italian Society of Human Nutrition. Nutr Metab Carbiovasc Dis, 27 (1), 1037–1052. DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2017.10.020.
3.Banaszek, A., Townsend, J.R., Bender, D., Vantrease, W.C., Marshall, A.C., Johnson, K.D. (2019). The effects of whey vs. pea protein on physical adaptations following 8-weeks of high-intensity functional training (HIFT): A pilot study. Sports, 7 (1), 12. DOI: 10.3390/sports7010012
4.Barnard, N.D., Goldman, D.M., Loomis, J.F., Kahleova, H., Levin, S.M., Neabore, S., Batts, T.C. (2019). Plant-based diets for cardiovascular safety and performance in endurance sports. Nutrients, 11 (1), 130. DOI: 10.3390/nu11010130
5.Barr, S.I., Rideout, C.A. (2004). Nutritional considerations for vegetarian athletes. Nutrition, 20 (7-8), 696–703. DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.015
6.Bătrînu, M-G., Tero-Vescan, A., Miklos, A. (2020). Biochemical controversies regarding the use of vegetal proteins in performance athletes. Acta Biol Marisiensis, 3 (2), 1–9. DOI: 10.2478/abmj-2020-0006
7.Bhardwaj, S., Saraswat, S. (2019). Product development, nutrient and sensory analysis of sports drink based on chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.). Int J Physiol Nutr Phys Educ, 4 (2), 187–190.
8.Boutros, G.H., Landry-Duval, MA., Garzon, M. Karelis, A.D. (2020). Is a vegan diet detrimental to endurance and muscle strength?. Eur J Clin Nutr, 74, 1550–1555. DOI: 10.1038/s41430-020-0639-y
9.Brown, D.D. (2018). Nutritional considerations for the vegetarian and vegan dancer. J Dance Med Sci T, 22 (1), 44-53. DOI: 10.12678/1089-313X.22.1.44
10.Carbone, S., Candela, V., Gumina, S. (2020). Plant-based diet is it suitable for crossfit athletes? J Phy Fit Treatment & Sports, 8 (1), 555729.
11.Carlsohn, A., Braun, H., Großhauser, M., König, D., Lampen, A., Mosler, S., Nieß, A., Oberritter, H., Schäbethal, K., Schek, A., Stehle, P., Virmani, K., Ziegenhagen, R., Heseker, H. (2019). Minerals and vitamins in sports nutrition. Position of the working group sports nutrition of the German Nutrition Society (DGE). Ernahr. Umsch. 66 (12), 250–257.
12.Chandrasekara, A., Kumar, T.J. (2016). Roots and Tuber Crops as Functional Foods: A Review on Phytochemical Constituents and Their Potential Health Benefits. Int J Food Sci, 2016, 3631647. DOI: 10.1155/2016/3631647
13.Chandrasekara, A. (2018). Roots and Tubers as Functional Foods. In: J.M. Mérillon., K. Ramawat (eds) Bioactive Molecules in Food. Reference Series in Phytochemistry. Springer, Cham. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-54528-8_37-1
14.Chang, S-L., Nfor, O.N., Ho, C-C., Lee, K-J., Lu, W-Y., Lung, C-C., Tantoh, D.M., Hsu, S-Y., Chou, M-C., Liaw, Y-P. (2020). Combination of Exercise and Vegetarian Diet: Relationship with High Density-Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Taiwanese Adults Based on MTHFR rs1801133 Polymorphism. Nutrients, 12 (6),1564. DOI: 10.3390/nu12061564
15.Ciara, A.G.J. (2019). Acute weight training-induced testosterone responses of trained males across age groups and diets: A pilot study. J Eurasia Sports Sci Med, 1 (2), 79–93.
16.Ciuris, C., Lynch, H.M., Wharton, C., Johnston, C.S. (2019). A comparison of dietary protein digestibility, based on DIAAS scoring, in vegetarian and non-vegetarian athletes. Nutrients, 11 (12), 3016. DOI: 10.3390/nu11123016
17.Cliceri, D., Spinelli, S., Dinnella, C., Prescott, J., Monteleone, E. (2018). The influence of psychological traits, beliefs and taste responsiveness on implicit attitudes toward plant- and animal-based dishes among vegetarians, flexitarians and omnivores. Food Qual Prefer, 68, 276–291. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.03.020
18.Craddock, J.C., Probst, Y.C. (2015). Vegetarian and omnivorous nutrition—comparing physical performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 26 (3), 212-220. DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2015-0231
19.Craddock, J.C., Neale, E.P., Peoples, G.E., Probst, Y.C. (2020). Plant-based eating patterns and endurance performance: A focus on inflammation, oxidative stress and immune responses. Nutr Bull, 45 (2), 123–132. DOI: 10.1111/nbu.12427
20.Craig, W., Mangels, M.A. (2009). Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc, 109 (7), 1266–1282.
21.Cramer, H., Sundberg, T., Schumann, D., Leach, M.J., Lauche, R. (2018). Differences between vegetarian and omnivorous yoga practitioners-Results of a nationally representative survey of US adult yoga practitioners. Complement Ther Med, 40, 48–52. DOI: 10.1016/j.ctim.2018.07.012
22.Davey, D., Malone, S., Egan, B. (2021). Case study: Transition to a vegan diet in an elite male Gaelic football player. Sports, 9, 6. DOI: 10.3390/sports9010006
23.Della, A., Paraskeva-Hadjichambi, D., Hadjichambis, A.C. (2006). An ethnobotanical survey of wild edible plants of Paphos and Larnaca countryside of Cyprus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed, 2, 34. DOI: 10.1186/1746-4269-2-34
24.Dénes, A., Papp, N., Babai, D., Czúcz, B., Molnár, Z. (2012). Wild plants used for food by Hungarian ethnic groups living in the Carpathian Basin. Acta Soc Bot Pol, 81 (4), 381–396. DOI: 10.5586/asbp.2012.040
25.Devrim-Lanpir, A., Hill, L., Knechtle, B. (2021). Efficacy of popular diets applied by endurance athletes on sports performance: beneficial or detrimental? A narrative review. Nutrients, 13 (2), 491. DOI: 10.3390/nu13020491
26.Dhalaria, R., Verma, R., Kumar, D., Puri, S., Tapwal, A., Kumar, V., Nepovimova, E., Kuca, K. (2020). Bioactive compounds of edible fruits with their anti-aging properties: a comprehensive review to prolong human life. Antioxidants, 9 (11), 1123. DOI: 10.3390/antiox9111123
27.Dinu M., Abbate R., Gensini G.F., Casini A., Sofi F. 2017. Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr., 57 (17), 3640–3649. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1138447
28.Diazgranados, M., Allkin, B., Black, N., Cámara-Leret, R., Canteiro, C., Carretero, J., Eastwood, R., Hargreaves, S., Hudson, A., Milliken, W., Nesbitt, M., Ondo, I., Patmore, K., Pironon, S., Turner, R., Ulian, T. (2020). World Checklist of Useful Plant Species. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Knowledge Network for Biocomplexity.
29.Dogan, Y. (2012). Traditionally used wild edible greens in the Aegean region of Turkey. Acta Soc Bot Pol, 81 (4), 329–342. DOI: 10.5586/asbp.2012.037
30.Earnest, C.P., Morss, G.M., Wyatt, F., Jordan, A.N., Colson, S., Church, T.S., Fitzgerald, Y., Autrey, L., Jurca, R., Lucia, A. (2004). Effects of a commercial herbal-based formula on exercise performance in cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 36 (3), 504–509. DOI: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000125157.49280.AF
31.Fidelis, M., de Moura, C., Kabbas Junior, T., Pap, N., Mattila, P., Mäkinen, S., Putnik, P., Bursać Kovačević, D., Tian, Y., Yang, B., Granato, D. (2019). Fruit seeds as sources of bioactive compounds: sustainable production of high value-added ingredients from by-products within circular economy. Molecules, 24 (21), 3854. DOI: 10.3390/molecules24213854
32.Fuhrman, J., Ferreri, D.M. (2010). Fueling the Vegetarian (Vegan) Athlete. Curr Sports Med Rep, 9 (4), 233–241. DOI: 10.1249/JSR.0b013e3181e93a6f
33.Forbes-Ewan, CH. (2002). Effect of vegetarian diets on performance in strength sports. available: sportsci.org/jour/0201/cf-e.htm [accessed 08 Mar 2021].
34.Gallien, G., Bellar, D., Davis, G.R. (2017). The efficacy of a pre-workout vegan supplement on high-intensity cycling performance in healthy college-aged males. J Diet Suppl, 14 (6), 697–705. DOI: 10.1080/19390211.2017.1310780
35.Garthe, I. (2019). Dietary supplements and elite athletes: when nature becomes high risk. Curr Opin Endocr Metab Res, 9, 66–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.coemr.2019.07.004
36.Gibson-Smith, E., Storey, R., Ranchordas, M. (2020). Dietary intake, body composition and iron status in experienced and elite climbers. Front Nutr, 7, 122. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2020.00122
37.González-Aguilar, G., Robles-Sánchez, R.M., Martínez-Téllez, M.A., Olivas, G.I., Alvarez-Parrilla, E., de la Rosa, L.A. (2008). Bioactive compounds in fruits: Health benefits and effect of storage conditions. Stewart Postharvest Rev, 4 (3), 1–10. DOI: 10.2212/spr.2008.3.8
38.Grandjean, A.C. (1987). The vegetarian athlete. Phys Sportsmed, 15 (5), 191–194. DOI: 10.1080/00913847.1987.11709361
39.Gröber, U. (2020). Casuistry: Targeted individual IV nutrient supplementation for analysis in high performance sport. Zeitschrift für Orthomolekulare Medizin, 5 (3), 14–15. DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-965596
40.Haub, M.D., Wells, A.M., Campbell, W.W. (2005). Beef and soy-based food supplements differentially affect serum lipoprotein-lipid profiles because of changes in carbohydrate intake and novel nutrient intake ratios in older men who resistive-train. Metab Clin Exp, 54 (6), 769–774. DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2005.01.019
41.Heller, S. (2019). Micronutrient needs of athletes eating plant-based diets. Nutr Today, 54 (1), 23–30. DOI: 10.1097/NT.0000000000000320
42.Hernández-Martínez, C., Fernández-Rodríguez, L., Soriano, M.A., Martínez-Sanz, J.M. (2020). Case study: Body composition changes resulting from a nutritional intervention on a professional vegan powerlifter. Appl. Sci, 10 (23), 8675. DOI: 10.3390/app10238675
43.Hevia-Larraín, V., Gualano, B., Longobardi, I., Gil, S., Fernandes, A.L., Costa, L.A.R., Pereira, R.M.R., Artioli, G.G., Phillips, S.M., Roschel, H. (2021). High-protein plant-based diet versus a protein-matched omnivorous diet to support resistance training adaptations: a comparison between habitual vegans and omnivores. Sports Med, 51 (6), 1317–1330. DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01434-9
44.Hietavala, E.M., Puurtinen, R., Kainulainen, H., Mero, A.A. (2012). Low-protein vegetarian diet does not have a short-term effect on blood acid–base status but raises oxygen consumption during submaximal cycling. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 9, 50. DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-9-50
45.Holmes, M., Willoughby, D.S. (2018). The influence of vegetarian diets on iron metabolism and supplementation in female athletes. Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 1 (1), 1–17.
46.Hong, L., Zhuo, J., Lei, Q., Zhou, J., Ahmed, S., Wang, Ch., Long, Y., Li, F., Long, Ch. (2015). Ethnobotany of wild plants used for starting fermented beverages in Shui communities of southwest China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed., 11, 42. DOI: 10.1186/s13002-015-0028-0
47.Iwasa-Mange, K., Wegener, J. (2020). Knowledge and perceptions of plant-based diets among competitive and recreational athletes. Can J Diet Pract Res, 81 (4), 204–209. DOI: 10.3148/cjdpr-2020-016
48.Jakše, B., Jakše, B. (2018). Is vegan diet appropriate for competitive artistic gymnasts? Sci Gymnast J 10 (2), 153–178.
49.Jideani, I.O., Silungwe, H., Takalani, T., Omolola, A.O., Udeh, H.O., Anyasi, T.A. (2021). Antioxidant-rich natural fruit and vegetable products and human health. Int J Food Prop, 24 (1), 41–67. DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2020.1866597
50.Kalle, R., Sõukand, R. (2012). Historical ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants of Estonia (1770s–1960s). Acta Soc Bot Pol. 81 (4), 271–281. DOI: 10.5586/asbp.2012.033
51.Kaviani, M., Shaw, K., Chilibeck, P.D. (2020). Benefits of creatine supplementation for vegetarians compared to omnivorous athletes: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17 (9), 3041. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17093041
52.Khanna, G.L., Lal, P.R., Kommi, K., Chakraborty, T. (2006). A comparison of a vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet in Indian female athletes in relation to exercise performance. JESP, 2, 27–34.
53.Klimatskaya, L., Zaitseva, O. (2015). Do Siberian yoga practitioners risk health if they follow lacto vegetarian diet? Puls Uczelni 9, 8–12.
54.Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt, K. (2020a). An overview of soybean derived products for sportsmen. Mov. Sports Sci. - Sci. Mot, 109, 23–37. DOI: 10.1051/sm/2020002
55.Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt, K. (2020b). A summary of the use of maize in nutritional products for sportsmen. Cent. Eur. J. Sport Sci. Med., 31 (3), 33–45. 10.18276/cej.2020.3-03
56.Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt, K. (2020c). An overview of coneflower (Echinacea)-derived nutritional products for athletes and recreationally active people. In: D.K. Semwal (Ed.) Medicinal Plants: Properties, Uses and Production. Nova Publisher, New York, USA.
57.Król, W., Price, S., Sliź, D., Parol, D. Konopka, M., Mamcarz, A., Wełnicki, M. Braksator, W. (2020). A Vegan Athlete’s Heart—Is It Different? Morphology and Function in Echocardiography. Diagnostics, 10 (7), 477. DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10070477
58.Landor-Yamagata, J.L., Kowarik, I., Fischer, L.K. (2018). Urban foraging in Berlin: people, plants and practices within the metropolitan green infrastructure. Sustainability, 10 (6), 1873. DOI: 10.3390/su10061873
59.Laquale, K.M. (2006). Practical suggestions for vegetarian athletes. Athl Ther Today, 11 (4), 49–60.
60.Larson-Meyer, D.E. (2018). Vegetarian and vegan diets for athletic training and performance. Sports Science Exchange, 29 (188), 1–7.
61.Leonti, M., Nebel, S., Rivera, D., Heinrich. M. (2006). Wild gathered food plants in the European Mediterranean: a comparative analysis. Econ Bot, 60 (2), 130–142.
62.Lis, D.M., Kings, D., Larson-Meyer, D.E. (2019). Dietary Practices Adopted by Track-and-Field Athletes: Gluten-Free, Low FODMAP, Vegetarian, and Fasting. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 29 (2), 236–245. DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0309
63.Lynch, H.M., Wharton, C.M., Johnston, C.S. (2016). Cardiorespiratory fitness and peak torque differences between vegetarian and omnivore endurance athletes: A cross-sectional study. Nutrients, 8 (11), 726. DOI: 10.3390/nu8110726
64.Lynch, H., Johnston, C., Wharton, C. (2018). Plant-based diets: considerations for environmental impact, protein quality, and exercise performance. Nutrients, 10 (12), 1841. DOI: 10.3390/nu10121841
65.Lynch, H.M., Buman, M.P., Dickinson, J.M., Ransdell, L.B., Johnston, C.S., Wharton, C.M. (2020). No significant differences in muscle growth and strength development when consuming soy and whey protein supplements matched for leucine following a 12 week resistance training program in men and women: a randomized trial. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17 (11), 3871. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17113871
66.Łuczaj, Ł., Szymański, W.M. (2007). Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed, 3 (1), 17. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-17
67.Łuczaj, Ł. (2012). Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants of Slovakia. Acta Soc. Bot. Pol, 81 (4), 245–255. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.2012.030
68.Łuczaj, Ł., Pieroni, A., Tardío, J., Pardo-de-Santayana, M., Sõukand, R., Svanberg, I., Kalle, R. (2012). Wild food plant use in 21st century Europe: the disappearance of old traditions and the search for new cuisines involving wild edibles. Acta Soc, Bot. Pol, 81 (4), 359–370. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.2012.031
69.McGirr, C., McEvoy, C.T., Woodside, J.V. (2017). Vegetarian and Vegan Diets: Weighing the Claims. In: Temple N., Wilson T., Bray G. (eds) Nutrition Guide for Physicians and Related Healthcare Professionals. Nutrition and Health. Humana Press, Cham. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-49929-1_20
70.Mateos-Maces, L., Chávez-Servia, J.L., Vera-Guzmán, A.M., Aquino-Bolaños, E.N., Alba-Jiménez, J.E., Villagómez-González, B.B. (2020). Edible Leafy plants from Mexico as sources of antioxidant compounds, and their nutritional, nutraceutical and antimicrobial potential: a review. Antioxidants, 9 (6)–541. DOI: 10.3390/antiox9060541
71.Maziarz, B., Chojęta, D., Zygmunt, E., Wróblewski, H., Zimna, A. (2020). Influence of vegan diet on physical performance of athletes. J. Educ. Health Sport, 10 (7), 209–215. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/JEHS.2020.10.07.023
72.Maughan, R.J., King, D.S., Lea, T. (2004). Dietary supplements. J. Sports Sci, 22 (1), 95–113. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0264041031000140581
73.Melina, V., Craig, W., Levin, S. (2016). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian diets. J Acad Nutr Diet, 116 (12), 1970–1980. DOI: 10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025
74.Meyer, N., Reguant-Closa, A. (2017). “Eat as If You Could Save the Planet and Win!” Sustainability Integration into Nutrition for Exercise and Sport. Nutrients, 9 (4), 412. DOI: 10.3390/nu9040412
75.Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G. (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med, 6 (7), e1000097. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
76.Motti, R. (2021). Wild plants used as herbs and spices in italy: an ethnobotanical review. Plants, 10 (3),563. DOI: 10.3390/plants10030563
77.Naclerio, F., Seijo, M., Earnest, C.P., Puente-Fernández, J., Larumbe-Zabala, E. (2020). Ingesting a post-workout vegan-protein multi-ingredient expedites recovery after resistance training in trained young males. J. Diet. Suppl, 18 (6), 698–713 . DOI: 10.1080/19390211.2020.1832640
78.Nebl, J. Schuchardt, JP., Wasserfurth, P., Haufe, S., Eigendorf, J., Tegtbur, U., Hahn, A. (2019a). Characterization, dietary habits and nutritional intake of omnivorous, lacto-ovo vegetarian and vegan runners - a pilot study. BMC Nutr, 5 (1), 2–14. DOI: 10.1186/s40795-019-0313-8
79.Nebl, J., Haufe, S., Eigendorf, J., Wasserfurth, P., Tegtbur, U., Hahn, A. (2019b). Exercise capacity of vegan, lacto-ovo-vegetarian and omnivorous recreational runners. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr, 16, 23. DOI: 10.1186/s12970-019-0289-4
80.Nebl, J., Drabert, K., Haufe, S., Wasserfurth, P., Eigendorf, J., Tegtbur, U., Hahn, A., Tsikas, D. (2019c). Exercise-induced oxidative stress, nitric oxide and plasma amino acid profile in recreational runners with vegetarian and non-vegetarian dietary patterns. Nutrients, 11 (8), 1875. DOI: 10.3390/nu11081875
81.Nebl, J., Schuchardt, J.P., Ströhle, A., Wasserfurth, P., Haufe, S., Eigendorf, J., Tegtbur, U., Hahn, A. (2019d). Micronutrient status of recreational runners with vegetarian or non-vegetarian dietary patterns. Nutrients, 11 (5), 1146. DOI: 10.3390/nu11051146
82.Nieman, D.C. (1999). Physical fitness and vegetarian diets: is there a relation? Am. J. Clin. Nutr, 70 (3), 570–575.
83.Parada, M., Carrió, E., Vallès, J. (2011). Ethnobotany of food plants in the Alt Emporda region (Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula). J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual, 84 (1), 11–25.
84.Parker, H.W., Vadiveloo, M.K. (2019). Diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets: a systematic review. Nutr. Rev, 77 (3), 144–160. DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuy067
85.Pelly, F.E., Burkhart, S.J. (2014). Dietary Regimens of Athletes Competing at the Delhi 2010 Commonwealth Games. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 24 (1), 28–36. DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0023
86.Pilis, W., Stec, K., Zych, M., Pilis, A. (2014). Health benefits and risk associated with adopting a vegetarian diet. Roczniki Państwowego Zakładu Higieny, 65 (1), 9–14.
87.Phillips, F. (2005). Vegetariannutrition. Nutr. Bull, 30 (2), 132–167. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-3010.2005.00467.x
88.Potthast, A.B., Nebl, J., Wasserfurth, P., Haufe, S., Eigendorf, J., Hahn, A., Das, A. (2020). Impact of nutrition on short-term exercise-induced sirtuin regulation: vegans differ from omnivores and lacto-ovo vegetarians. Nutrients, 12 (4), 1004. DOI: 10.3390/nu12041004
89.Rivera, G., Bocanegra-García, V., Monge, A. (2010). Traditional plants assource of functional foods: a review. CYTA J Food, 2, 159-167. DOI: 10.1080/19476330903322978
90.Rogerson, D. (2017). Vegan diets: practical advice for athletes and exercisers. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr, 14, 36. DOI: 10.1186/s12970-017-0192-9
91.Schoenfeld, M.L. (2020). Nutritional considerations for the female vegan athlete. Strength Cond J, 42 (4), 68–76. DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000405
92.Schroeder, K., Sonneville, K.R. (2015). Sports Nutrition. In: C. Gordon, M. LeBoff (eds) The Female Athlete Triad. Springer, Boston, MA. . DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-7525-6_2
93.Senger, E., Bohlinger, B., Esgaib, S., Hernández‑Cubero, L.C., Montes, J.M., Becker, K. (2017). Chuta (edible Jatropha curcas L.), the newcomer among underutilized crops: a rich source of vegetable oil and protein for human consumption. Eur. Food Res. Technol, 243 (6), 987–997. DOI: 10.1007/s00217-016-2814-x
94.Sellami, M., Slimeni, O., Pokrywka, A., Kuvačić, G., Hayes, L.D., Milic, M., Padulo, J. (2018). Herbal medicine for sports: a review. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr, 15, 14. DOI: 10.1186/s12970-018-0218-y
95.Śliż, D., Parol, D., Wełnicki, M., Chomiuk, T., Grabowska, I., Dąbrowska, D., Król, W., Price, S., Braksator, W., Mamcarz, A. (2021). Macronutrient intake, carbohydrate metabolism and cholesterol in Polish male amateur athletes on a vegan diet. Nutr. Bull, 46 (2), 120–127. DOI: 10.1111/nbu.12491
96.Tang, J.E., Moore, D.R., Kujbida, G.W., Tarnopolsky, M.A., Phillips, S.M. (2009). Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate:effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. J. Appl. Physiol. 107, 987–992. DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00076.2009
97.Tardío, J., Pascual, H., Morales, R. (2005). Wild food plants traditionally used in the province of Madrid, central Spain. Econ. Bot, 59 (2), 122–136.
98.Teklehaymanot, T., Giday, M. (2010). Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants of Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed, 6, 23. DOI: 10.1186/1746-4269-6-23
99.Trapp, D., Knez, W., Sinclair, W. (2010). Could a vegetarian diet reduce exercise-induced oxidative stress? A review of the literature. J. Sports Sci, 28 (12), 1261–1268. DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2010.507676
100.Turner, N.J., Łuczaj, Ł.J., Migliorini, P., Pieroni, A., Dreon, A.L., Sacchetti, L.E., Paoletti, M.G. (2011). Edible and tended wild plants, traditional ecological knowledge and agroecology. Cr Rev Plant Sci, 30 (1–2), 198–225. DOI: 10.1080/07352689.2011.554492
101.Vallès, J., D’Ambrosio, U., Gras, A., Parada, M., Rigat, M., Serrasolses, G., Garnatje, T. (2017). Medicinal and food plants in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology: Folk functional foods in Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula). In: D. Muñoz-Torrero, M. Riu, C. Feliu (Eds.) Recent Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences, 7, 1–17.
102.Veleba, J., Matoulek, M., Hill, M., Pelikanova, T., Kahleova, H. (2016). A vegetarian vs. conventional hypocaloric diet: the effect on physical fitness in response to aerobic exercise in patients with type 2 diabetes.” A Parallel Randomized Study. Nutrients, 8 (11), 671. DOI: 10.3390/nu8110671
103.Vanata, D.F., Mazzino, N., Bergosh, R.,Graham, P. (2014). Caffeine improves sprint-distance performance among Division II collegiate swimmers. The Sport Journal 17, Retrieved from: https://thesportjournal.org/article/caffeine-improves-sprint-distance-performance-among-division-ii-collegiate-swimmers/
104.Venderley, A.M., Campbell, W.W. (2006). Vegetarian diets - Nutritional considerations for athletes. Sports Med, 36 (4), 293–305. DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200636040-00002
105.Vitale, K., Hueglin, S. (2021). Update on vegetarian and vegan athletes: a review. J. Phys. Fit. Sports Med, 10 (1), 1–11. DOI: 10.7600/jpfsm.10.1
106.Wirnitzer, K. (2010). Nutrition strategy during an eight-day mountainbike stage race - a case study. In: D.C. Lieberman (Ed.) Aerobic Exercise And Athletic Performance: Types, Duration And Health Benefits (Sports and Athletics Preparation, Performance, and Psychology Series). Nova Science Publisher, New York, US.
107.Wirnitzer, K., Boldt, P., Lechleitner, Ch., Wirnitzer, G., Leitzmann, C., Rosemann, T., Knechtle, B. (2019). Health Status of Female and Male Vegetarian and Vegan Endurance Runners Compared to Omnivores—Results from the NURMI Study (Step 2). Nutrients, 11 (1), 29; DOI: 10.3390/nu11010029
108.Wirnitzer, K. (2020). Vegan Diet in Sports and Exercise – Health Benefits and Advantag-es to Athletes and Physically Active People: A Narrative Review. Int J Sports Exerc Med, 6, 165. DOI: 10.23937/2469-5718/1510165
109.Woodbridge, P., Konstantaki, M., Horgan, G. (2020). Nutritional deficiencies in vegan runners: a comparison of actual versus recommended food intakes and dietary recommendations. Br. J. Nutr, 3 (14), 1–10.
110.Xu, D-P., Li, Y., Meng, X., Zhou, T., Zhou, Y., Zheng, J., Zhang, J-J., Li, H-B. (2017). Natural Antioxidants in Foods and Medicinal Plants: Extraction, Assessment and Resources. Int. J. Mol. Sci, 18 (1), 96. DOI: 10.3390/ijms18010096
111.Xu, Y., Liang, D., Wang, G-T., Wen, J., Wang, R-J. (2020). Nutritional and functional properties of wild food-medicine plants from the coastal region of South China. J. Evid.-Based Integr. Med, 25, 1–13.
112.Yadav, R., Mukhopadhyay, S., Yadav, S. (2020). Physical fitness index of non-vegetarian and lacto-vegetarian adults: A comparative study of harvard step test. Nepal Med Coll J, 22 (3), 167–172. DOI: 10.3126/nmcj.v22i3.32651
113.Yeşil, Y., İnal, İ. (2019). Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants in Hasankeyf (Batman
114.Province, Turkey). Acta Soc. Bot. Pol, 88 (3), 3633. DOI: 10.5586/asbp.3633
115.Zhao, Y., Wu, Y.Z., Wang, M. (2015). Bioactive Substances of Plant Origin. In: P.C.K. Cheung, B.M. Mehta (eds.) Handbook of Food Chemistry, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-36605-5