ISSN: 1734-9923
eISSN: 2300-7621
OAI
DOI: 10.18276/aie.2021.56-02
Issue archive /
56 (2021)
Being Outside the Decision-Loop: The Impact of Deep Brain Stimulation and Brain-Computer Interfaces on Autonomy
| Authors: |
Monika
Michałowska
Uniwersytet Medyczny w Łodzi Łukasz Kowalczyk Weronika Marcinkowska Mikołaj Malicki |
| Keywords: | Neural Technologies Autonomy Control Decision-Making Well-Being Informed Consent |
| Whole issue publication date: | 2021 |
| Page range: | 28 (25-52) |
Abstract
Recent advancements in new neural technologies raise bioethical concerns over personal autonomy, which they potentially threaten to diminish or entirely eliminate. Although caution in the application of deep brain stimulation (DBS) and brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) is explicitly urged in almost every study, the debate features a definitional void as to what notion of autonomy is actually adopted by the authors. The focus on autonomy has dominated the debate to such an extent that other essential values seem to be disappearing from the bioethical horizon, becoming less valued, less important, and less visible. This paper examines the autonomy-problem by probing whether DBS and BCIs indeed threaten personal autonomy. The impact of DBS and BCIs is studied on the examples of several illnesses, whereby the well-being of a person and the importance of informed consent are taken into account to assess the influence of these novel medical technologies on autonomy.
Download file
Article file
Bibliography
| 1. | Abbasi, J. (2019). Advanced Brain-Computer Interface for People With Paralysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 321 (6), 537. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2019.0294. |
| 2. | Alexopoulos, G.S. (2005). Depression in the Elderly. Lancet (London, England), 365 (9475), 1961–1970. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66665-2. |
| 3. | Arya, S., Filkowski, M.M., Nanda, P., Sheth, S.A. (2019). Deep Brain Stimulation for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 83 (1), 84–96. DOI: 10.1521/bumc.2019.83.1.84. |
| 4. | Aum, D.J., Tierney, T.S. (2018). Deep Brain Stimulation: Foundations and Future Trends. Frontiers in Bioscience (Landmark Edition), 23, 162–182. DOI: 10.2741/4586. |
| 5. | Baranowski, C.J. (2018). The Quality of Life of Older Adults with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review. Seizure, 60, 190–197. DOI: 10.1016/j.seizure.2018.06.002. |
| 6. | Batista, A. (2020). Brain-Computer Interfaces for Basic Neuroscience. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 168, 233–247. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63934-9.00017-2. |
| 7. | Baylis, F. (2013). “I Am Who I Am”: On the Perceived Threats to Personal Identity from Deep Brain Stimulation. Neuroethics, 6 (3), 513-526. DOI: 10.1007/s12152-011-9137-1. |
| 8. | Belkacem, A.N., Jamil, N., Palmer, J.A., Ouhbi, S., Chen, C. (2020). Brain Computer Interfaces for Improving the Quality of Life of Older Adults and Elderly Patients. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, 692. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00692. |
| 9. | Bergey, G.K., Morrell, M.J., Mizrahi, E.M., Goldman, A., King-Stephens, D., Nair, D., Srinivasan, S., Jobst, B., Gross, R.E., Shields, D.C., Barkley, G., Salanova, V., Olejniczak, P., Cole, A., Cash, S.S., Noe, K., Wharen, R., Worrell, G., Murro, A.M., Edwards, J., Duchowny, M., Spencer, D., Smith, M., Geller, E., Gwinn, R., Skidmore, C., Eisenschenk, S., Berg, M., Heck, C., Van Ness, P., Fountain, N., Rutecki, P., Massey, A., O’Donovan, C., Labar, D., Duckrow, R.B., Hirsch, L.J., Courtney, T., Sun, F.T., Seale, C.G. (2015). Long-Term Treatment with Responsive Brain Stimulation in Adults with Refractory Partial Seizures. Neurology, 84 (8), 810–817. DOI: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000001280. |
| 10. | Burwell, S., Sample, M., Racine, E. (2017). Ethical Aspects of Brain Computer Interfaces: A Scoping Review. BMC Medical Ethics, 18 (1), 60. DOI: 10.1186/s12910-017-0220-y. |
| 11. | Capogrosso, M., Milekovic, T., Borton, D., Wagner, F., Moraud, E.M., Mignardot, J.B., Buse, N., Gandar, J., Barraud, Q., Xing, D., Rey, E., Duis, S., Jianzhong, Y., Ko, W.K., Li, Q., Detemple, P., Denison, T., Micera, S., Bezard, E., Bloch, J., Courtine G. (2016). A Brain-Spine Interface Alleviating Gait Deficits after Spinal Cord Injury in Primates. Nature, 539 (7628), 284–288. DOI: 10.1038/nature20118. |
| 12. | Christman, J. (2020). Autonomy in Moral and Political Philosophy. In: Zalta, E.N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 Edition). Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/autonomy-moral/ (31.05.2021). |
| 13. | Cillo, A., Bonetti, M., Burro, G., Di Serio, C., De Filippis, R., Martoni, R.M. (2019). Neurocognitive Assessment in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Patients: Adherence to Behavioral Decision Models. PloS One, 14 (2), e0211856. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211856. |
| 14. | Clarke, R. (2003). Libertarian Accounts of Free Will. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
| 15. | Crisp, R. (2017). Well-Being. In: Zalta, E.N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition). Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/well-being/ (06.05.2021). |
| 16. | Dalton, B., Bartholdy, S., Campbell, I.C., Schmidt, U. (2018). Neurostimulation in Clinical and Sub-clinical Eating Disorders: A Systematic Update of the Literature. Current Neuropharmacology, 16 (8), 1174–1192. DOI: 10.2174/1570159X16666180108111532. |
| 17. | Dandekar, M.P., Fenoy, A.J., Carvalho, A.F., Soares, J.C., Quevedo, J. (2018). Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression: An Integrative Review of Preclinical and Clinical Findings and Translational Implications. Molecular Psychiatry, 23 (5), 1094–1112. DOI: 10.1038/mp.2018.2. |
| 18. | Davidoff, E.J. (2020). Agency and Accountability: Ethical Considerations for Brain-Computer Interfaces. The Rutgers Journal of Bioethics, 11, 9–20. |
| 19. | Dougherty, D.D. (2018). Deep Brain Stimulation: Clinical Applications. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 41 (3), 385–394. DOI: 10.1016/j.psc.2018.04.004. |
| 20. | Drobisz, D., Damborská, A. (2019). Deep Brain Stimulation Targets for Treating Depression. Behavioural Brain Research, 359, 266–273. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.11.004. |
| 21. | Dworkin, G. (1988). The Theory and Practice of Autonomy (Cambridge Studies in Philosophy). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
| 22. | Dziwota, E., Stepulak, M.Z., Włoszczak-Szubzda, A., Olajossy, M. (2018). Social Functioning and the Quality of Life of Patients Diagnosed with Schizophrenia. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine: AAEM, 25 (1), 50–55. DOI: 10.5604/12321966.1233566. |
| 23. | Edwards, C.A., Kouzani, A., Lee, K.H., Ross, E.K. (2017). Neurostimulation Devices for the Treatment of Neurologic Disorders. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 92 (9), 1427–1444. DOI: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.05.005. |
| 24. | Feinberg, J. (1980). Rights, Justice, and the Bounds of Liberty: Essays in Social Philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. |
| 25. | Fenton, A., Alpert, S. (2008). Extending Our View on Using BCIs for Locked-in Syndrome. Neuroethics, 1 (2), 119–132. DOI: 10.1007/s12152-008-9014-8. |
| 26. | Fontanillo Lopez, C.A., Li, G., Zhang, D. (2020). Beyond Technologies of Electroencephalography-Based Brain-Computer Interfaces: A Systematic Review From Commercial and Ethical Aspects. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, 611130. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.611130. |
| 27. | Friedrich, O., Racine, E., Steinert, S., Pömsl, J., Jox, R.J. (2021). An Analysis of the Impact of Brain-Computer Interfaces on Autonomy. Neuroethics, 14, 17–29. DOI: 10.1007/s12152-018-9364-9. |
| 28. | Ghasemi, P., Sahraee, T., Mohammadi, A. (2018). Closed- and Open-loop Deep Brain Stimulation: Methods, Challenges, Current and Future Aspects. Journal of Biomedical Physics and Engineering, 8 (2), 209–216. DOI: 10.31661/jbpe.v8i2.898. |
| 29. | Gilbert, F. (2015). A Threat to Autonomy? The Intrusion of Predictive Brain Implants. AJOB Neuroscience, 6 (4), 4–11. DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2015.1076087. |
| 30. | Gilbert, F., O’Brient, T., Cook, M. (2018). The Effects of Closed-Loop Brain Implants on Autonomy and Deliberation: What are the Risks of Being Kept in the Loop? Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 27 (2), 316–325. DOI:10.1017/S0963180117000640. |
| 31. | Gilbert, F., Cook, M., O’Brien, T., Illes, J. (2019). Embodiment and Estrangement: Results from a First-in-Human “Intelligent BCI” Trial. Science and Engineering Ethics, 25 (1), 83–96. DOI: 10.1007/s11948-017-0001-5. |
| 32. | Ginet, C. (1990). On Action (Cambridge Studies in Philosophy). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
| 33. | Glannon, W. (2016). Ethical Issues in Neuroprosthetics. Journal of Neural Engineering, 13 (2), 021002. DOI: 10.1088/1741-2560/13/2/021002. |
| 34. | Goering, S., Klein, E., Dougherty, D.D., Widge, A.S. (2017). Staying in the Loop: Relational Agency and Identity in Next-Generation DBS for Psychiatry. AJOB Neuroscience, 8 (2), 59–70. DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2017.1320320. |
| 35. | Guerreiro, C.M. (2016). Epilepsy: Is there Hope? Indian Journal of Medical Research, 144 (5), 657–660. DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1051_16. |
| 36. | Habets, J., Heijmans, M., Kuijf, M.L., Janssen, M., Temel, Y., Kubben, P.L. (2018). An Update on Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson’s Disease. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 33 (12), 1834–1843. DOI: 10.1002/mds.115. |
| 37. | Ienca, M., Haselager, P. (2016). Hacking the Brain: Brain-Computer Interfacing Technology and the Ethics of Neurosecurity. Ethics and Information Technology, 18 (2), 117–129. DOI: 10.1007/s10676-016-9398-9. |
| 38. | Iwry, J., Yaden, D.B., Newberg, A.B. (2017). Noninvasive Brain Stimulation and Personal Identity: Ethical Considerations. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 281. DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00281. |
| 39. | Jianhong, W., Ramirez-Mendoza, R.A. (2020). The Practical Analysis for Closed-Loop System Identification. Cogent Engineering, 7 (1). DOI: 10.1080/23311916.2020.1796895. |
| 40. | Kane, R. (1998). The Significance of Free Will. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
| 41. | Kawala-Sterniuk, A., Browarska, N., Al-Bakri, A., Pelc, M., Zygarlicki, J., Sidikova, M., Martinek, R., Gorzelanczyk, E.J. (2021). Summary of over Fifty Years with Brain-Computer Interfaces—A Review. Brain Sciences, 11 (1), 43. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010043. |
| 42. | Kellmeyer, P., Cochrane, T., Müller, O., Mitchell, C., Ball, T., Fins, J.J., Biller-Andorno, N. (2016). The Effects of Closed-Loop Medical Devices on the Autonomy and Accountability of Persons and Systems. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics: CQ: The International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees, 25 (4), 623–633. DOI: 10.1017/S0963180116000359. |
| 43. | Kellmeyer, P., Grosse-Wentrup, M., Schulze-Bonhage, A., Ziemann, U., Ball, T. (2018). Electrophysiological Correlates of Neurodegeneration in Motor and Non-Motor Brain Regions in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis–Implications for Brain-Computer Interfacing. Journal of Neural Engineering, 15 (4), 041003. DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aabfa5. |
| 44. | Klein, E., Goering, S., Gagne, J., Shea, C.V., Franklin, R., Zorowitz, S., Dougherty, D.D., Widge, A.S. (2016). Brain-Computer Interface-Based Control of Closed-Loop Brain Stimulation: Attitudes and Ethical Considerations. Brain-Computer Interfaces, 3 (3), 140–148. DOI: 10.1080/2326263X.2016.1207497. |
| 45. | Klein, E. (2020). Ethics and the Emergence of Brain-Computer Interface Medicine. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 168, 329–339. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63934-9.00024-X. |
| 46. | Klinger, N., Mittal, S. (2018). Deep Brain Stimulation for Seizure Control in Drug-Resistant Epilepsy. Neurosurgical Focus, 45 (2), E4. DOI: 10.3171/2018.4.FOCUS1872. |
| 47. | Kogan, M., McGuire, M., Riley, J. (2019). Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson Disease. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America, 30 (2), 137–146. DOI: 10.1016/j.nec.2019.01.001. |
| 48. | Kupferberg, A., Bicks, L., Hasler, G. (2016). Social Functioning in Major Depressive Disorder. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 69, 313–332. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.002. |
| 49. | Lahr, J., Schwartz, C., Heimbach, B., Aertsen, A., Rickert, J., Ball, T. (2015). Invasive Brain-Machine Interfaces: A Survey of Paralyzed Patients’ Attitudes, Knowledge and Methods of Information Retrieval. Journal of Neural Engineering, 12 (4), 043001. DOI: 10.1088/1741-2560/12/4/043001. |
| 50. | Lake, W., Hedera, P., Konrad, P. (2019). Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment of Tremor. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America, 30 (2), 147–159. DOI: 10.1016/j.nec.2019.01.002. |
| 51. | Laureys, S., Pellas, F., Van Eeckhout, P., Ghorbel, S., Schnakers, C., Perrin, F., Berré, J., Faymonville, M.E., Pantke, K.H., Damas, F., Lamy, M., Moonen, G., Goldman, S. (2005). The Locked-in Syndrome: What is It Like to be Conscious but Paralyzed and Voiceless? Progress in Brain Research, 150, 495–511. DOI: 10.1016/S0079-6123(05)50034-7. |
| 52. | Lavazza, A. (2018). Freedom of Thought and Mental Integrity: The Moral Requirements for Any Neural Prosthesis. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 82. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00082. |
| 53. | Lawton, J., Blackburn, M., Rankin, D., Allen, J.M., Campbell, F.M., Leelarathna, L., Tauschmann, M., Thabit, H., Wilinska, M.E., Elleri, D., Hovorka, R. (2019). Participants’ Experiences of, and Views About, Daytime Use of a Day-and-Night Hybrid Closed-Loop System in Real Life Settings: Longitudinal Qualitative Study. Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics, 21 (3), 119–127. DOI: 10.1089/dia.2018.0306. |
| 54. | de Lazari-Radek, K. (2021). Godny pożądania stan świadomości. O przyjemności jako wartości ostatecznej. Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. |
| 55. | Lee, D.J., Lozano, C.S., Dallapiazza, R.F., Lozano, A.M. (2019). Current and Future Directions of Deep Brain Stimulation for Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders. Journal of Neurosurgery, 131 (2), 333–342. DOI: 10.3171/2019.4.JNS181761. |
| 56. | Leeb, R., Pérez-Marcos, D. (2020). Brain-Computer Interfaces and Virtual Reality for Neurorehabilitation. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 168, 183–197. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63934-9.00014-7. |
| 57. | Lipsman, N., Woodside, D.B., Giacobbe, P., Hamani, C., Carter, J.C., Norwood, S.J., Sutandar, K., Staab, R., Elias, G., Lyman, C.H., Smith, G.S., Lozano, A.M. (2013). Subcallosal Cingulate Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Refractory Anorexia Nervosa: A Phase 1 Pilot Trial. Lancet, 381 (9875), 1361–1370. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62188-6. |
| 58. | Łukaszewicz Alcaraz, A. (2021). Are Cyborgs Persons? An Account of Futurist Ethics. Palgrave Macmillan. |
| 59. | Mackenzie, C., Stoljar, N. (eds.). (2000). Relational Autonomy: Feminist Perspectives on Autonomy, Agency, and the Social Self. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
| 60. | Mackenzie, C. (2015). Autonomy. In: Arras, J.D., Fenton, E., Kukla R. (eds.), The Routledge |
| 61. | Companion to Bioethics (pp. 277–290). New York: Routledge. |
| 62. | Maiser, S., Kabir, A., Sabsevitz, D., Peltier, W. (2016). Locked-In Syndrome #303. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 19 (4), 460–461. DOI: 10.1089/jpm.2016.0016. |
| 63. | Malek, N. (2019). Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson’s Disease. Neurology India, 67 (4), 968–978. DOI: 10.4103/0028-3886.266268. |
| 64. | Malhi, G.S., Mann, J.J. (2018). Depression. Lancet (London, England), 392 (10161), 2299–2312. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31948-2. |
| 65. | Manson, N., O’Neill, O. (2007). Rethinking Informed Consent in Bioethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
| 66. | Marchetti, M., Priftis, K. (2015). Brain Computer Interfaces in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Metanalysis. Clinical Neurophysiology, 126 (6), 1255–1263. DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2014.09.017. |
| 67. | Maynard, A.D., Scragg, M. (2019). The Ethical and Responsible Development and Application of Advanced Brain Machine Interfaces. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 21 (10), e16321. DOI: 10.2196/16321. |
| 68. | McCann, H.J. (1998). The Works of Agency: On Human Action, Will, and Freedom. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. |
| 69. | McCann, H.J. (2012). Making Decisions. Philosophical Issues, 22, Action Theory, 246–263. DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-6077.2012.00228.x. |
| 70. | McGie, S.C., Nagai, M.K., Artinian-Shaheen, T. (2013). Clinical Ethical Concerns in the Implantation of Brain-Machine Interfaces. IEEE pulse, 4 (2), 32–37. DOI: 10.1109/MPUL.2013.2242014. |
| 71. | Mele, A.R. (1995). Autonomous Agents: From Self-Control to Autonomy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
| 72. | Meyers, D. (1987). Personal Autonomy and the Paradox of Feminine Socialization. The Journal of Philosophy, 84 (11), 619–628. |
| 73. | Milekovic, T., Sarma, A.A., Bacher, D., Simeral, J.D., Saab, J., Pandarinath, C., Sorice, B.L., Blabe, C., Oakley, E.M., Tringale, K.R., Eskandar, E., Cash, S.S., Henderson, J.M., Shenoy, K.V., Donoghue, J.P., Hochberg, L.R. (2018). Stable Long-Term BCI-Enabled Communication in ALS and Locked-in Syndrome Using LFP Signals. Journal of Neurophysiology, 120 (1), 343–360. DOI: /10.1152/jn.00493.2017. |
| 74. | More, M. (1995). The Extropian Principles Version. 2.6. Retrieved from: https://www.maxmore.com/ (13.04.2021). |
| 75. | More, M. (2021). FAQ 3. Retrieved from: https://www.maxmore.com/ (12.04.2021). |
| 76. | Mosley, P.E., Windels, F., Morris, J., Coyne, T., Marsh, R., Giorni, A., Mohan, A., Sachdev P., O’Leary, E., Boschen, M., Sah, P., Silburn, P.A. (2021). A Randomised, Double-Blind, Sham-Controlled Trial of Deep Brain Stimulation of the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis for Treatment-Resistant Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Translational Psychiatry, 11 (1), 190. DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01307-9. |
| 77. | Neumann, W.J., Turner, R.S., Blankertz, B., Mitchell, T., Kühn, A.A., Richardson, R.M. (2019). Toward Electrophysiology-Based Intelligent Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders. Neurotherapeutics, 16 (1), 105–118. DOI: 10.1007/s13311-018-00705-0. |
| 78. | Nozick, R. (1974). Anarchy, State, and Utopia. New York: Basic Books. |
| 79. | O’Brolcháin, F., Jacquemard, T., Monaghan D., O’Connor N., Novitzky, P., Gordijn, B. (2016). The Convergence of Virtual Reality and Social Networks: Threats to Privacy and Autonomy. Science and Engineering Ethics, 22 (1), 1–29. DOI: 10.1007/s11948-014-9621-1. |
| 80. | O’Connor, T. (2009). Degrees of Freedom. Philosophical Explorations, 12 (2), 119–125. DOI: 10.1080/13869790902838472. |
| 81. | O’Neill, O. (2002). Autonomy and Trust in Bioethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
| 82. | Perepezko, K., Hinkle, J.T., Shepard, M.D., Fischer, N., Broen, M.P.G., Leentjens, A.F.G., Gallo, J.J., Pontone, G.M. (2019). Social Sole Functioning in Parkinson’s Disease: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 34 (8), 1128–1138. DOI: 10.1002/gps.5137. |
| 83. | Potter, S.M., El Hady, A., Fetz, E.E. (2014). Closed-Loop Neuroscience and Neuroengineering. Frontiers in Neural Circuits, 8, 115. DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2014.00115. |
| 84. | Pugh, J., Pycroft, L., Sandberg, A., Aziz, T., Savulescu, J. (2018). Brainjacking in Deep Brain Stimulation and Autonomy. Ethics and Information Technology, 20 (3), 219–232. DOI: 10.1007/s10676-018-9466-4. |
| 85. | Rachid, F. (2018). Neurostimulation Techniques in the Treatment of Cocaine Dependence: A Review of the Literature. Addictive Behaviors, 76, 145–155. DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.08.004. |
| 86. | Rapinesi, C., Kotzalidis, G.D., Ferracuti, S., Sani, G., Girardi, P., Del Casale, A. (2019). Brain Stimulation in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A Systematic Review. Current Neuropharmacology, 17 (8), 145–155. DOI: 10.2174/1570159X17666190409142555. |
| 87. | Rodrigues, F.B., Duarte, G.S., Prescott, D., Ferreira, J., Costa, J. (2019). Deep Brain Stimulation for Dystonia. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1 (1), CD012405. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD012405.pub2. |
| 88. | Rosenfeld, J.V, Wong, Y.T. (2017). Neurobionics and the Brain-Computer Interface: Current Applications and Future Horizons. Medical Journal of Australia, 206 (8), 363–368. DOI: 10.5694/mja16.01011. |
| 89. | Saha, S., Mamun, K.A., Ahmed, K., Mostafa, R., Naik, G.R., Darvishi, S., Khandoker, A.H., Baumert, M. (2021). Progress in Brain Computer Interface: Challenges and Opportunities. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 15, 578875. DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.578875. |
| 90. | Salanova, V. (2018). Deep Brain Stimulation for Epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 88S, 21–24. DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.06.041. |
| 91. | Sandel, M. (2007). The Case against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Harvard University Press. |
| 92. | Schechtman, M. (2009). Getting our Stories Straight: Self-Narrative and Personal Identity. In: Mathews D.J.H., Bok H., Rabins P.V. (eds.), Personal Identity and Fractured Selves: Perspectives from Philosophy, Ethics, and Neuroscience (pp. 65–92). Johns Hopkins University Press. |
| 93. | Schechtman, M. (2010). Philosophical Reflections on Narrative and Deep Brain Stimulation. The Journal of Clinical Ethics, 21 (2), 133–139. |
| 94. | Schermer, M. (2009). The Mind and the Machine. On the Conceptual and Moral Implications of Brain Machine Interaction. Nano Ethics, 3 (3), 217. DOI: 10.1007/s11569-009-0076-9. |
| 95. | Sisterson, N.D., Wozny, T.A., Kokkinos, V., Constantino, A., Richardson, R.M. (2019). Closed-Loop Brain Stimulation for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy: Towards an Evidence-Based Approach to Personalized Medicine. Neurotherapeutics, 16 (1), 119–127. DOI: 10.1007/s13311-018-00682-4. |
| 96. | Sisterson, N.D., Kokkinos, V. (2020). Neuromodulation of Epilepsy Networks. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America, 31 (3), 459–470. DOI: 10.1016/j.nec.2020.03.009. |
| 97. | Smith, E., Delargy, M. (2005). Locked-in Syndrome. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 330 (7488), 406–409. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.330.7488.406. |
| 98. | Steigerwald, F., Matthies, C., Volkmann, J. (2019). Directional Deep Brain Stimulation. Neurotherapeutics, 16 (1), 100–104. DOI: 10.1007/s13311-018-0667-7. |
| 99. | Steinert, S., Friedrich, O. (2020). Wired Emotions: Ethical Issues of Affective Brain-Computer Interfaces. Science and Engineering Ethics, 26 (1), 351–367. DOI: 10.1007/s11948-019-00087-2. |
| 100. | Sun, F.T., Morrell, M.J. (2014). Closed-Loop Neurostimulation: The Clinical Experience. Neurotherapeutics, 11 (3), 553–563. DOI: 10.1007/s13311-014-0280-3. |
| 101. | Tastevin, M., Spatola, G., Régis, J., Lançon, C., Richieri, R. (2019). Deep Brain Stimulation in the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Current Perspectives. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 1259–1272. DOI: 10.2147/NDT.S178207. |
| 102. | Tedrus, G., Crepaldi, C.R., de Almeida Fischer, B. (2020). Quality of Life Perception in Patients with Epilepsy for a Period of 4 Years. Epilepsy & Behavior, 111, 107318. DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107318. |
| 103. | Thinnes-Elker, F., Iljina, O., Apostolides, J.K., Kraemer, F., Schulze-Bonhage, A., Aertsen, A., Ball, T. (2012). Intention Concepts and Brain-Machine Interfacing. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 455. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00455. |
| 104. | Vansteensel, M.J., Jarosiewicz, B. (2020). Brain-Computer Interfaces for Communication. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 168, 67–85. DOI:10.1016/B978-0-444-63934-9.00007-X. |
| 105. | Vassileva, A., van Blooijs, D., Leijten, F., Huiskamp, G. (2018). Neocortical Electrical Stimulation for Epilepsy: Closed-Loop versus Open-Loop. Epilepsy research, 141, 95–101. DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2018.02.010. |
| 106. | Vaughan, T.M. (2020). Brain-Computer Interfaces for People with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 168, 33–38. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63934-9.00004-4. |
| 107. | White-Dzuro, G.A., Lake, W., Neimat, J.S. (2017). Subpectoral Implantation of Internal Pulse Generators for Deep Brain Stimulation: Technical Note for Improved Cosmetic Outcomes. Operative Neurosurgery, 13 (4), 529–534. DOI: 10.1093/ons/opx018. |
| 108. | Wolkenstein, A., Jox, R., Friedrich, O. (2018). Brain-Computer Interfaces: Lessons to Be Learned from the Ethics of Algorithms. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 27 (4), 635–646. DOI: 10.1017/S0963180118000130. |
| 109. | Xu, W., Zhang, C., Deeb, W., Patel, B., Wu, Y., Voon, V., Okun, M.S., Sun, B. (2020). Deep Brain Stimulation for Tourette’s Syndrome. Translational Neurodegeneration, 9, 4. DOI: 10.1186/s40035-020-0183-7. |
| 110. | Yan, H., Toyota, E., Anderson, M., Abel, T.J., Donner, E., Kalia, S.K., Drake, J., Rutka, J.T., Ibrahim, G.M. (2018). A Systematic Review of Deep Brain Stimulation for the Treatment of Drug-Resistant Epilepsy in Childhood. Journal of Neurosurgery. Pediatrics, 23 (3), 274–284. DOI: 10.3171/2018.9.PEDS18417. |
| 111. | Young, G.B. (2014). Locked-In Syndrome. In: Daroff, R., Aminoff, M. (eds.), Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (p. 916). Elsevier. |
| 112. | Yuste, R., Goering, S., Arcas, B., Bi, G., Carmena, J.M., Carter, A., Fins, J.J., Friesen, P., Gallant, J., Huggins, J.E., Illes, J., Kellmeyer, P., Klein, E., Marblestone, A., Mitchell, C., Parens, E., Pham, M., Rubel, A., Sadato, N., Sullivan, L.S., Teicher, M., Wasserman, D., Wexler, A., Whittaker, M., Wolpaw, J. (2017). Four Ethical Priorities for Neurotechnologies and AI. Nature, 551 (7679), 159–163. DOI: 10.1038/551159a. |
| 113. | Zheng, Y., Mao, Y.R., Yuan, T.F., Xu, D.S., Cheng, L.M. (2020). Multimodal Treatment for Spinal Cord Injury: A Sword of Neuroregeneration upon Neuromodulation. Neural Regeneration Research, 15 (8), 1437–1450. DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.274332. |
| 114. | Zhou, J.J., Chen, T., Farber, S.H., Shetter, A.G., Ponce, F.A. (2018). Open-Loop Deep Brain Stimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy: A Systematic Review of Clinical Outcomes over the Past Decade (2008-present). Neurosurgical Focus, 45 (2), E5. DOI: 10.3171/2018.5.FOCUS18161. |